Table 1 Characteristics of the UK Biobank participants by glucosamine use

Female, n (%)

113,476 (52.8)

80,613 (49.7)

32,863 (62.1)

 < 0.001

Age, years

64.1 (2.9)

64.1 (2.9)

64.2 (2.8)

 < 0.001

White race, n (%)

207,923 (97.1)

156,539 (97.0)

51,384 (97.4)

 < 0.001

Household income, £

 < 0.001

  < 18,000

59,429 (27.8)

46,816 (29)

12,613 (23.9)

 18,000–30,999

56,958 (26.6)

41,803 (25.9)

15,155 (28.7)

 31,000–51,999

36,426 (17.0)

26,517 (16.5)

9909 (18.8)

 52,000–100,000

17,539 (8.2)

13,040 (8.1)

4499 (8.5)

  > 100 000

4182 (2.0)

3177 (2.0)

1005 (1.9)

Townsend deprivation index

 − 1.6 (3.0)

 − 1.4 (3.0)

 − 2 (2.7)

 < 0.001

Body mass index, kg/m²

27.6 (4.6)

27.6 (4.6)

27.4 (4.5)

 < 0.001

Optimal physical activity

118,718 (59.9)

87,525 (58.9)

31,193 (63)

 < 0.001

Smoking status, n (%)

 < 0.001

 Never

106,920 (49.7)

79,245 (48.9)

27,675 (52.3)

 Former

89,309 (41.5)

67,034 (41.4)

22,275 (42.1)

 Current

17,655 (8.2)

14,924 (9.2)

2731 (5.2)

Alcohol consumption, n (%)

 < 0.001

 Daily or almost daily

50,181 (23.3)

36,951 (22.8)

13,230 (25.0)

 3–4 times a week

47,371 (22)

34,796 (21.5)

12,575 (23.8)

 Once or twice a week

51,283 (23.9)

38,799 (23.9)

12,484 (23.6)

 1–3 times a month

21,258 (9.9)

16,118 (9.9)

5140 (9.7)

Never or special occasions only

44,700 (20.8)

35,256 (21.8)

9444 (17.9)

Healthy diet score

3.2 (1.4)

3.2 (1.4)

3.4 (1.4)

 < 0.001

Family history of dementia, n (%)

32,271 (15.0)

23,823 (14.7)

8448 (16.0)

 < 0.001

APOE ε4 dosage

0.290

 0

151,036 (73.7)

113,815 (73.7)

37,221 (73.7)

 1

49,098 (23.9)

37,051 (24.0)

12,047 (23.8)

 2

4904 (2.4)

3651 (2.4)

1253 (2.5)

Global cognitive function (z-score)

0.00 (0.73)

 − 0.02 (0.74)

0.04 (0.67)

 < 0.001

Self-reported disease history, n (%)

 Diabetes

15,076 (7.0)

12,749 (7.9)

2327 (4.4)

 < 0.001

 Hypertension

77,998 (36.3)

61,097 (37.7)

16,901 (32.0)

 < 0.001

 Arthritis

29,344 (13.7)

17,813 (11.0)

11,531 (21.8)

 < 0.001

 History of cardiovascular disease

27,694 (12.9)

22,995 (14.2)

4699 (8.9)

 < 0.001

Drug use, n (%)

 Anti-hypertensive

68,098 (31.9)

53,976 (33.5)

14,122 (26.8)

 < 0.001

 Lowering cholesterol

59,983 (28.1)

47,578 (29.5)

12,405 (23.5)

 < 0.001

 Insulin treatment

2955 (1.4)

2541 (1.6)

414 (0.8)

 < 0.001

 Aspirin

45,315 (21.3)

35,662 (22.3)

9653 (18.4)

 < 0.001

 Non-aspirin NSAID

22,514 (10.6)

14,571 (9.1)

7943 (15.1)

 < 0.001

Supplement use, n (%)

 Vitamin

36,008 (16.8)

22,521 (14)

13,487 (25.6)

 < 0.001

 Mineral and fish oil

96,999 (45.1)

59,005 (36.4)

37,994 (71.8)

 < 0.001