Table 7 Results of multiple linear regression analyses of the association between walking (or walking intensity) and cognition in older adults exhibiting no decrease in food intake over the past 3 months (n = 174)

Overall walking (n = 117)

 Model 1^a

  Walking

6.408

2.276

0.200

0.005

3.863

1.309

0.202

0.004

1.253

1.044

0.090

0.232

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Model 2^b

  Walking

5.124

2.043

0.160

0.013

3.133

1.204

0.164

0.010

0.431

0.979

0.031

0.661

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

Midlife-initiated walking (n = 97)

 Model 1^a

  Walking

6.947

2.484

0.217

0.006

4.282

1.407

0.230

0.003

1.477

1.120

0.107

0.189

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Model 2^b

  Walking

5.084

2.217

0.158

0.023

3.180

1.295

0.171

0.015

0.393

1.045

0.029

0.707

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

Late life-initiated walking (n = 20)

 Model 1^a

  Walking

4.293

3.307

0.146

0.199

2.212

2.210

0.111

0.321

0.965

1.557

0.072

0.538

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Model 2^b

  Walking

4.956

3.122

0.168

0.118

3.468

2.102

0.173

0.105

0.432

1.567

0.032

0.784

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

  Walking intensity

Total score

Memory score

Non-memory score

B

SE

\(\beta\)

p

B

SE

\(\beta\)

p

B

SE

\(\beta\)

p

Overall walking (n = 117)

 Model 1^a

  High

11.083

2.618

0.344

< 0.001

4.533

1.562

0.237

0.004

3.222

1.203

0.232

0.008

  Low

2.901

2.417

0.094

0.232

2.273

1.442

0.125

0.117

− 0.020

1.111

− 0.001

0.986

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Model 2^b

  High

8.349

2.400

0.260

< 0.001

3.162

1.454

0.165

0.031

1.755

1.168

0.126

0.135

  Low

3.143

2.164

0.102

0.148

2.197

1.311

0.120

0.096

− 0.154

1.053

− 0.012

0.884

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Model 3^c

  High

12.757

4.622

0.397

0.006

6.587

2.794

0.345

0.020

1.834

2.258

0.132

0.418

  Low

6.477

3.689

0.211

0.081

4.787

2.230

0.262

0.033

− 0.095

1.802

− 0.007

0.958

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

Midlife-initiated walking (n = 97)

 Model 1^a

  High

12.520

2.892

0.367

< 0.001

5.229

1.708

0.266

0.003

3.573

1.315

0.246

0.007

  Low

3.093

2.638

0.096

0.243

2.645

1.558

0.143

0.092

0.182

1.200

0.013

0.880

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Model 2^b

  High

9.317

2.676

0.273

< 0.001

3.388

1.617

0.172

0.038

1.751

1.294

0.121

0.178

  Low

2.908

2.332

0.091

0.215

2.314

1.409

0.125

0.103

− 0.043

1.128

− 0.003

0.970

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Model 3^c

  High

17.505

5.322

0.514

0.001

9.569

3.195

0.486

0.003

2.697

2.602

0.186

0.302

  Low

8.842

4.065

0.276

0.031

6.793

2.440

0.367

0.006

0.642

1.988

0.047

0.747

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

Late life-initiated walking (n = 20)

 Model 1^a

  High

4.809

4.327

0.123

0.270

1.713

3.021

0.064

0.572

2.226

2.059

0.125

0.283

  Low

2.428

4.370

0.062

0.580

0.541

3.051

0.020

0.860

− 0.481

2.079

0.125

0.283

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Model 2^b

  High

8.306

4.208

0.213

0.053

5.011

2.968

0.186

0.097

2.126

2.253

0.119

0.349

  Low

1.771

4.100

0.045

0.667

0.135

2.892

0.005

0.963

− 1.073

2.196

− 0.060

0.627

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Model 3^c

  High

− 6.584

8.739

− 0.169

0.454

− 5.572

6.161

− 0.207

0.370

− 4.082

4.741

− 0.229

0.393

  Low

− 13.185

8.720

− 0.338

0.136

− 10.494

6.148

− 0.389

0.093

− 7.308

4.731

− 0.411

0.128

  None

Reference

Reference

Reference