Table 1 Baseline participant characteristics according to walking status

n

188

63

125

Age, years

72.01 (5.16)

72.67 (5.23)

71.67 (5.11)

0.213^a

Female, no. (%)

133 (70.74)

45 (71.43)

88 (70.40)

0.884^b

Education, no. (%)

0.197^b

 ≥13 years

39 (20.74)

9 (14.29)

30 (24.00)

 10–12 years

50 (26.60)

14 (22.22)

36 (28.80)

 4–9 years

82 (43.62)

33 (52.38)

49 (39.20)

 0–3 years

17 (9.04)

7 (11.11)

10 (8.00)

MMSE

25.67 (3.42)

24.76 (3.80)

26.13 (3.14)

0.009^a

APOE4 positivity, no. (%)

37 (19.68)

13 (20.63)

24 (19.20)

0.815^b

Clinical diagnosis, CN, no. (%)

107 (56.91)

33 (52.38)

74 (59.20)

0.373^b

Walking intensity

< 0.001^b

 None

63 (33.51)

63 (100.00)

0 (0.00)

 Low (less than moderate-intensity)

68 (4.93)

0 (0.00)

68 (54.40)

 High (moderate to vigorous-intensity)

57 (30.32)

0 (0.00)

57 (45.60)

Walking duration

< 0.001^b

 None

63 (33.51)

63 (100.00)

0 (0.00)

 Low (6 h or less per week)

75 (39.89)

0 (0.00)

75 (60.00)

 High (more than 6 h per week)

50 (26.60)

0 (0.00)

50 (40.00)

Number of years of walking practice

< 0.001^a

 Midlife (40–64 years)

18.18 (13.37)

0 (0.00)

18.18 (13.37)

 Late life (≥65 years)

4.95 (6.28)

0 (0.00)

4.95 (6.28)

 Overall

9.98 (13.02)

0 (0.00)

15.43 (13.35)

Walking onset

< 0.001^b

 Midlife (40−64 years)

103 (54.79)

0 (0.00)

103 (82.40)

 Late life (≥65 years)

22 (11.70)

0 (0.00)

22 (17.60)

Annual income, no. (%)

 < MCL

23 (12.23)

9 (14.29)

14 (11.20)

0.371^b

 ≥ MCL, < 2×MCL

59 (31.38)

23 (36.51)

36 (28.80)

 ≥ 2×MCL

106 (56.38)

31 (49.21)

75 (60.00)

VRS, %

23.85 (18.57)

25.40 (17.67)

23.07 (19.02)

0.418^a

GDS, no. (%)

0.572^b

  Normal (< 9)

92 (48.94)

29 (46.03)

63 (50.40)

  Depressed (≥10)

96 (51.06)

34 (53.97)

62 (49.60)

UPDRS, gait disturbance requiring assistance

0 (0.00)

0 (0.00)

0 (0.00)

Body mass index

  Underweight (< 18.5)

4 (2.13)

0 (0.00)

4 (3.20)

0.131^c

  Normal weight (18.5–24.9)

95 (50.53)

28 (44.44)

67 (53.60)

  Overweight (≥ 25)

89 (47.34)

35 (55.56)

54 (43.20)

Alcohol drink status, no (%)

0.846^b

  Never

105 (55.85)

35 (55.56)

70 (56.00)

  Former

32 (17.02)

12 (19.05)

20 (16.00)

  Drinker

51 (27.13)

16 (25.40)

35 (28.00)

PASE total score

65.56 (46.58)

70.73 954.79)

62.96 (41.84)

0.281^a

Blood markers

 Hemoglobin

13.33 (1.52)

13.25 (1.60)

13.37 (1.49)

0.592^a

 Albumin

4.57 (0.26)

4.57 (0.26)

4.58 (0.26)

0.906^a

 Glucose, fasting

108.40 (20.31)

108.34 (17.76)

108.44 (21.54)

0.976^a

 HDL-cholesterol

54.87 (12.90)

53.58 (13.61)

55.52 (12.54)

0.336^a

 LDL-cholesterol

96.13 (33.40)

98.21 (34.64)

95.10 (32.85)

0.550^a

Nutritional markers

 Protein, no (%)

0.390^b

  High

25 (13.30)

6 (9.52)

19 (15.20)

  Moderate

73 (38.83)

23 (36.51)

50 (40.00)

  Low

90 (47.87)

34 (53.97)

56 (44.80)

 Fruit and vegetables, no (%)

0.972^b

  High

128 (68.09)

43 (68.25)

85 (68.00)

  Low

60 (31.91)

20 (31.75)

40 (32.00)

Decrease in food intake over the past 3 months, no (%)

14 (7.45)

6 (9.52)

8 (6.40)

0.557^c

CERAD cognition

 Total score

70.50 (15.47)

65.21 (14.48)

73.17 (15.32)

< 0.001^a

 Memory score

35.45 (9.31)

32.56 (9.62)

36.91 (8.83)

0.002^a

 Non-memory score

34.39 (6.64)

33.05 (6.56)

35.07 (6.59)

0.048^a