Table 2 Health economic properties and analytical details of the identified studies
Study | Perspective | Discount rate | Sensitivity analysis | Data source of cost | Measures of health outcome | Main economic outcome and result |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
D’Amico et al. [25] (2016) | Healthcare sector perspective, societal perspective | 3.5% | PSA | Unit cost: Personal Social Services Research Unit compendium for 2011, British National Formulary database Service used: CSRI completed by carer | A clinically significant change in BPSD symptoms (reduction of 3 or more points of NPI); health-related quality of life (measured by DEMQOL-Proxy) | From healthcare payer perspective, study group was dominant for BPSD and QALY From societal perspective, ICERs: CAD$ 421 per significant change of; CAD$ 286440 per QALY WTP threshold: CAD$ 20000/QALY |
Davis et al. [26] (2013) | Healthcare sector perspective | Not applied | PSA | Unit cost: British Columbia Medical Services Plan 2013 price list Service used: patient self-complete questionnaires, caregiver survey questionnaire | Changes in executive cognitive function (seconds gained or lost of Stroop Test) | Incremental Stroop Interference time: AT group vs. BAT group was 7.5 s RT group vs. BAT group was 7.8 s The mean total healthcare costs were lower in the AT and RT groups compared with BAT group Study groups (AT and RT) were dominant |
Davis et al. [27] (2017) | Healthcare sector perspective | Not applied | PSA | Unit cost: British Columbia Medical Services Plan 2013 price list Service used: telephone interview, patient’s monthly diary of services used, health resource usage questionnaire | Health-related quality of life measured by EQ-5D-3L | ICER: CAD$ 3761 per patient-rated QALY CAD$ 3715 per caregiver-rated QALY WTP threshold: CAD$ 20000/QALY |
Eckert et al. [28] (2021) | Societal perspective | Not applied | PSA | Unit cost: Standardized unit cost for German healthcare system (German Federal Statistical Office) Service used: questionnaire for medical and nonmedical services answered by patients or caregivers | A clinically significant change in physical performance (1 point of increase on the SPPB total score); health-related quality of life measured by EQ-5D-3L | The probability of cost-effectiveness referring to physical performance (measured by SPPB score) was 92%, given a decision maker’s WTP threshold of EUR€ 500 per one-point gain on the SPPB score. The probability of cost-effectiveness referring to QALYs was 85% at a WTP threshold of EUR€ 5000 per QALY, and leveled off at 90%, given WTP above EUR€ 20000 |
Kato et al. [22] (2022) | Healthcare sector perspective, societal perspective | 2% | DSA PSA | Unit cost and service used: published literatures | Health-related quality of life measured by EQ-5D-3L | ICER: − 5,740,083 Japanese yen/QALY WTP threshold: 5,000,000 Japanese yen/QALY |
Khan et al. [31] (2019) | Healthcare sector perspective, societal perspective | Not applied | DSA PSA | Unit cost: Health and Social Care Information Centre drug costs, NHS Reference Costs trusts schedules, The NHS Hospital and Community Health Services Pay and Prices Index Service used: CSRI | Cognitive outcomes (participant reported ADAS-Cog score); health-related quality of life that measured by EQ-5D-3L | ADAS-Cog score had worsened slightly to 25.2 (standard deviation [SD] 12.3) in the exercise arm and 23.8 (SD 10.4) in the standard-of-care The probability that the exercise program is cost-effective was < 1% across WTP thresholds. incremental net monetary benefit ranged between US$3719 and US$3086 at cost-effectiveness thresholds between US$21450 and US$42900 per QALY |
Pitkälä et al. [24] (2013) | NA | NA | NA | Unit cost: Finnish national cost registered 2006 Service used: medical records | Physical functioning (evaluated with the FIM change) and mobility (assessed with the SPPB score) | FIM change (p < 0.01): HE group: − 7.1 (95% CI: − 3.7, − 10.5; p = 0.004) GE group: − 10.3(95% CI: − 6.7, − 13.9; p = 0.12) CG group: − 14.4(95% CI: − 10.9, − 18.0) Costs: HE group: US$25 112 (95% CI: US$17 642 to US$32 581; p = .13 vs. CG) GE group: US$22 066 in the GE group (95% CI: US$15 931 to US$28 199; p = .03 vs. CG) CG group: US$34 121 (95% CI: US$24 559 to US$43 681) |
Sopina et al. [32] (2017) | Healthcare sector perspective | Not applied | PSA | Unit cost and service used: recorded by physiotherapist | Health-related quality of life that EQ-5D-5L and EQ-VAS | The intervention cost was estimated at EUR€608 and EUR€496 per participant, with and without transport cost, respectively. Participants and caregivers in the intervention group reported a small, positive non-significant improvement in EQ-5D-5L and EQ-VAS after 16 weeks. The ICER was estimated at EUR€72 000/quality-adjusted life year using participant-reported outcomes and EUR€87000 using caregiver-reported outcomes |
Van Santen et al. [23] (2021) | Societal perspective | NA | PSA | Unit cost: standard prices from the Dutch guidelines for economic evaluations Service used: cost diaries filled out by participants | Health-related quality of life that measured by EQ-5D-3L; physical activity (in minutes) and mobility (based on SPPB score) | ICER: \(-\) EUR€781/QALY (societal costs were higher and effects were smaller in the exergaming group); EUR€0.70 per one minute gained in physical activity; EUR€533 per one point gained on the and mobility (based on SPPB score) |
Baal et al. [29] (2016) | NA | 3.5% | DSA, PSA | Unit cost and service used: published literatures | Life years | Incremental Life Years: 0.23 life years Incremental Cost: -£400 |
Wimo et al. [30] (2022) | Societal perspective | 3% | DSA | Unit cost and service used: published literatures | Health-related quality of life that measured by EQ-5D-3L | The FINGER program resulting in savings of 16,928 SEK (2023 US$) and 0.043 QALY gains per person, supporting extended dominance for the FINGER program |