Fig. 5

Longitudinal analyses reveal that pioglitazone reduces incidence of Alzheimer’s disease in patient data. Six comparison analyses were conducted including (i) pioglitazone (n = 101,650) vs. matched control population (n = 402,184); (ii) pioglitazone vs. glipizide (a diabetes drug, n = 191,656); (iii) febuxostat (n = 24,218) vs. control (n = 95,192); (iv) atenolol (n = 366,277) vs. control (n = 1,449,815); (v) nadolol (n = 19,253) vs. control (n = 76,136); and (vi) sotalol (n = 43,819) vs. control (n = 172,375). First, for each comparison, we estimated the propensity score by using the variables described in Table 2. Then, we estimated the unstratified Kaplan-Meier curves, conducted propensity score stratified (n strata = 10) log-rank test and Cox model. Using propensity score stratified survival analyses, non-exposures were matched to the exposures (ratio 4:1) by adjusting the initiation time of drug, enrollment history, age and gender, and disease comorbidities (hypertension, type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease)