Fig. 8

Elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines in AD mice were reduced by EV treatment. Levels of cytokines secreted by PMA- and ionomycin-stimulated spleen cells were measured in WT, AD, and AD+EV mice. a, b While unaffected in early-stage AD mice, interferon-γ and IL-17 pro-inflammatory cytokines were significantly elevated in late-stage AD mice and significantly reduced by EV treatment. c Alternatively, reduced levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in early-stage AD mice were restored to nearly control levels in the AD mice that received EV treatment. No changes among groups were observed for IL-10 in the late-stage animals. d Spleen cells were also stained for B1 cells (CD19⁺, CD5⁺, CD43⁺) and analyzed by flow cytometry. While not statistically significant, a trend for a reduced percentage of B1 cells was observed for AD mice and improved by EV treatment. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (N = 7 mice/group). P values are derived from ANOVA and Bonferroni’s multiple comparisons test. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01