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Table 2 Neuropsychological results for the subgroups of monolinguals and bilinguals included in the longitudinal study

From: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study on the protective effect of bilingualism against dementia using brain atrophy and cognitive measures

 

Monolinguals

Bilinguals

Group effects

Time effects

Interaction effects

Time 1

Time 2

Time 1

Time 2

F-score1

F-score2

F-score3

MMSE

26.8 (2.73)

25.7 (3.02)

27.7 (2.13)

27.1 (3.02)

1.46

5.87*

0.68

FAQ

3.80 (2.96)

5.40 (4.47)

3.07 (1.49)

5.40 (2.92)

0.15

9.15*

0.42

Boston

9.53 (1.68)

8.87 (2.36)

9.93 (1.03)

9.40 (1.12)

0.70

7.74*

0.09

Phonetic fluency

14.0 (8.34)

6.73 (2.79)

11.2 (3.73)

9.13 (1.81)

0.02

14.74*

4.19*

Semantic fluency

21.4 (16.3)

10.0 (3.05)

13.6 (5.41)

9.60 (1.55)

2.56

15.92*

3.45

WLA

10.0 (3.09)

9.73 (3.31)

8.47 (1.36)

9.13 (2.03)

1.74

0.75

0.90

WLR

0.87 (0.83)

0.53 (0.64)

1.00 (0.65)

1.13 (0.52)

3.39

0.49

2.51

Remote memory

8.80 (2.01)

9.13 (1.64)

9.47 (1.13)

9.93 (1.03)

2.71

1.54

0.06

Clock-drawing

7.50 (2.28)

6.29 (2.46)

7.40 (1.30)

6.73 (1.03)

0.08

9.39

0.73

  1. Cells in the table indicate the groups’ means (standard deviation in parenthesis) for each neuropsychological test at time 1 and time 2. Two participants (1 bilingual and 1 monolingual) did not complete the neuropsychological evaluation at time 2. Thus, the table shows statistics excluding these participants (N = 30; 15 bilinguals and 15 monolinguals)
  2. MMSE Mini-Mental State Examination, FAQ Functional Activities Questionnaire, WLA word list acquisition, WLR word list recall
  3. *p < 0.05 uncorrected
  4. 1The main effect of bilingualism estimated by means of a two-way mixed ANOVA, including time as within-subject factor and bilingualism as between-subject factor
  5. 2The main effect of time estimated by means of a two-way mixed ANOVA, including time as within-subject factor and bilingualism as between-subject factor
  6. 3The interaction effect between time and bilingualism estimated by means of an ANCOVA model, including time as within-subject factor, bilingualism as between-subject factor, and time between explorations (in months) as covariate of no interest