Table 1 Pathological and functional biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease

Pathological Alzheimer's disease biomarkers

Positron emission tomography

   Fibrillar amyloid beta (¹¹C-Pittsburgh Compound B, ¹⁸F-flutemetamol, ¹⁸F-florbetapir, and ¹⁸F-florbetaben)

   Tau (¹⁸F-FDDNP)

   Microglia (¹¹C-PK11195, ¹¹C-DA1106)

   Astrocytes (¹¹C-D-deprenyl)

Magnetic resonance imaging (atrophy, hippocampal volume, cortical thickness) Cerebrospinal fluid (amyloid beta 1-42, tau, p-tau)

Functional Alzheimer's disease biomarkers

Positron emission tomography

   Cerebral glucose metabolism (¹⁸F-FDG)

   Neurotransmitter activity (for example, ¹¹C-CFT, ¹¹C-PMP)

   Neuroreceptors (for example, ¹¹C-raclopride, ¹⁸F-alanserine, ¹¹C-nicotine)

Functional magnetic resonance imaging, spectroscopy

Single-photon emission computed tomography (cerebral blood flow)