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Table 1 Signs of altered immune response in Alzheimer's disease patients and relevant references

From: Inflammation in Alzheimer's disease: relevance to pathogenesis and therapy

Signs of altered immune response

References

Presence of HLA-DR or LFA-1 (leucocyte function-associated antigen) positive reactive microglia around senile plaques

[1, 2, 35, 37, 40]

Increased hippocampal gene expression of MHC II in AD compared to high-pathology controls

[95]

Elevated brain levels of IL-1β and S-100

[3]

Presence of activated elements of classical complement pathway (C1q, C3d, C4d) within dystrophic neurites, NFTs and/or Aβ plaques

[34, 36, 96]

Up-regulated mRNA levels of complement elements C1q and C9 in AD brain

[97]

Strong IL-6 immunoreactivity around plaques and large cortical neurons

[38]

Low levels of TNFa in brain areas with AD pathology

[39]

Increased levels of TNFa in sera of severe stage AD patients

[98]

Increased levels of intracellular neuronal IL10, IFNγ and IL12 in AD patients compared to age-matched controls

[99]

Correlations between Mini Mental State Examination scores and in vivo imaging marker [11C](R)PK11195-PET of activated microglia in AD patients

[42]

  1. Aβ, amyloid beta; AD, Alzheimer's disease; IFN, interferon; NFT, neurofibrillary tangle.
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Alzheimer's Research & Therapy

ISSN: 1758-9193